ASEAN-WATER https://asean-water.com Local solutions for global changes Wed, 23 Aug 2023 08:25:56 +0000 en-US hourly 1 https://wordpress.org/?v=6.5.2 https://asean-water.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/favicon.png ASEAN-WATER https://asean-water.com 32 32 197344151 Water treatment and management in Southeast Asia: The latest innovations https://asean-water.com/water-treatment-and-management-in-southeast-asia-the-latest-innovations/ https://asean-water.com/water-treatment-and-management-in-southeast-asia-the-latest-innovations/#respond Wed, 23 Aug 2023 08:07:59 +0000 https://asean-water.com/?p=2538

Southeast Asia is a region facing a number of challenges in terms of water resources. These challenges include water scarcity, pollution, and climate change. In order to meet the growing demand for water and to protect water quality, Southeast Asian countries are investing in new technologies and methods for water treatment and management.

Some of the latest innovations in water treatment and management in Southeast Asia include:

  • Desalination technology: This technology removes salt from seawater to produce drinking water. Desalination plants are becoming increasingly common in Southeast Asia, as they can provide a reliable source of water in areas where freshwater is scarce.
  • Nanotechnology: This technology uses nanoparticles to remove contaminants from water. Nanoparticles can be used to filter out pollutants, such as bacteria and viruses, from water.
  • Solar water purification: This technology uses solar energy to purify water. Solar water purifiers are a sustainable and affordable way to produce clean water in remote areas.
  • Membrane filtration: This technology uses membranes to filter out contaminants from water. Membrane filters are very effective at removing small particles and microorganisms from water.
  • Wetland treatment systems: These systems use natural processes to remove contaminants from water. Wetland treatment systems are a cost-effective way to treat wastewater and to improve water quality.

These are just a few of the latest innovations in water treatment and management in Southeast Asia. These innovations have the potential to improve water quality and security in the region, and they are helping to address the challenges posed by water scarcity, pollution, and climate change.

Desalination technology

Picture of a reverse osmosis plant

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reverse_osmosis_desalination_plant.JPG

Desalination, the pivotal process of extracting salt from seawater to yield freshwater, stands as an increasingly vital solution in Southeast Asia. The region’s struggle with water scarcity accentuates the significance of this technology.

Two principal desalination methods exist: thermal desalination and membrane desalination. Thermal desalination leverages heat to vaporize seawater, subsequently condensing the vapor to produce freshwater. In contrast, membrane desalination employs specialized membranes to selectively eliminate salt ions from seawater.

Delving into the advantages of desalination technology:

  • Reliable Resource: In locales grappling with freshwater scarcity, desalination serves as a dependable water source, addressing critical supply gaps.
  • Renewable Drinking Water: The conversion of seawater into potable water establishes a renewable drinking water source.
  • Strategic Location: Placing desalination plants near the coastline aids in curbing water transportation expenses.

However, challenges interlace with these benefits:

  • Energy Demand: The energy-intensive nature of desalination can amplify operational costs, posing financial considerations.
  • Brine Impact: The concentrated salt and mineral solution – brine – generated during desalination can adversely affect marine ecosystems if released into the ocean.
  • Environmental Footprint: The comprehensive ecological ramifications of desalination plants remain a subject of ongoing examination.

Financial dynamics differ based on technology type and plant location, with the anticipated operational lifespan spanning 20 to 30 years.

Delving into the environmental intricacies:

Brine Challenge: Desalination plants produce brine, a concentrated salt and mineral solution, which can potentially harm marine life if not responsibly disposed of.

Energy Thirst: Energy-intensive desalination processes contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, influencing the environmental balance.

Water Quality Considerations: While desalination excels in purification, it can strip water of beneficial minerals, altering taste and potentially impacting human health.

Balancing these complexities, desalination remains an essential asset for bolstering water security in regions grappling with water scarcity. As technological advancements unfold, it’s expected that the environmental footprint of desalination plants will diminish, aligning with sustainable goals.

Nanotechnologies

Nanotechnology, a field dedicated to manipulating matter at the nanoscale – an astonishing billionth of a meter – has emerged as a pivotal scientific endeavor. Notably, nanoparticles, tiny particles ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers, serve as its cornerstone.

Nanotechnology has seamlessly integrated into various water treatment domains:

  • Purification Mastery: Employing nanoparticles facilitates the removal of diverse pollutants, spanning bacteria, viruses, and heavy metals, from water sources.
  • Desalination Enhancement: Nanoparticles elevate desalination plant efficiency, a crucial stride toward addressing water scarcity.
  • Disinfection Breakthrough: Nanoparticles pave the way for water disinfection, endowing us with potable water resources.
  • Filtration Excellence: Leveraging nanoparticles empowers comprehensive water filtration, banishing contaminants from water supplies.

Intriguingly, nanotechnology boasts several merits for water treatment:

  • Pollutant Spectrum: Its versatility encompasses the removal of an expansive array of pollutants, ensuring enhanced water quality.
  • Process Efficiency: Water treatment processes, including desalination and filtration, experience heightened efficiency with nanotechnology’s integration.
  • Safe Water Assurance: Nanotechnology plays a pivotal role in delivering safe drinking and utility water, even in regions grappling with compromised water quality.

However, a spectrum of considerations emerges:

  • Novelty and Uncertainties: As a relatively nascent technology, the long-term implications of nanoparticles in water treatment remain a subject of exploration.
  • Health and Environmental Balance: Mishandling nanoparticles could pose health risks and ecological consequences, underscoring the need for responsible application.
  • Economic Realities: Nanotechnology for water treatment carries significant costs that might be a barrier to widespread adoption.

The financial outlay varies based on application type and project scope, while the anticipated lifespan of nanotechnology-infused water treatment systems generally spans 10 to 20 years.

Further elaborating on these dynamics: Pros:

  • Pollutant Eradication: Nanoparticles act as a potent tool against an extensive pollutant spectrum, encompassing bacteria, viruses, heavy metals, and organic contaminants.
  • Process Optimization: Nanotechnology catalyzes the efficiency of water treatment processes, enhancing the yield of desalination and filtration.
  • Resilient Water Production: Even in locales plagued by subpar water quality, nanoparticles drive the production of safe, usable water.

Cons:

  • Uncharted Territories: As a nascent endeavor, the long-term implications of nanoparticle integration in water treatment warrant thorough investigation.
  • Health and Ecological Considerations: Careful management is essential, as inadequate handling of nanoparticles could precipitate health risks and environmental perturbations.
  • Economic Hurdles: The current cost landscape of nanotechnology-based water treatment might impede its widespread adoption.

Gazing into the future: Though challenges persist, the potential of nanotechnology to revolutionize water treatment is undeniable. As this field matures, costs are predicted to wane, offering broader accessibility, while the complexities surrounding health and environmental impacts are poised to receive heightened clarity.

Solar Water Purification

Cultivating Water Purity through Solar Innovation

Solar water purification stands as a groundbreaking methodology, harnessing solar energy’s potential to achieve water purification. This pragmatic technology is gaining prevalence in Southeast Asia due to its sustainable and cost-effective approach to water treatment.

Two primary methodologies define solar water purification: solar distillation and solar photocatalysis. Solar distillation capitalizes on solar heat to vaporize water, subsequently condensing it into freshwater. Conversely, solar photocatalysis employs solar light to activate catalysts that dismantle pollutants in water.

The method offers several merits:

  • Sustainability Embodied: Solar water purification aligns with renewable energy, reducing carbon footprint and addressing environmental concerns.
  • Economic Viability and Simplicity: It presents an affordable solution, particularly in areas with limited access to conventional power sources.
  • Remote Accessibility: It extends its benefits to remote regions with scant access to clean water, potentially enhancing public health.

Yet, challenges persist:

  • Efficiency Dynamics: In comparison to alternatives such as reverse osmosis, solar purification might exhibit slower water production rates.
  • Sunlight Dependency: Regions with inadequate sunlight might experience intermittent water output, necessitating supplementary measures.
  • Initial Capital: The installation costs of solar water purification systems can be relatively higher.

Exploring the pros and cons in detail: Pros:

  • Sustainability Focal Point: Solar water purification’s alignment with renewable energy contributes to sustainability efforts and climate change mitigation.
  • Operational Ease: Especially beneficial in off-grid areas, it provides a straightforward and economically viable water treatment method.
  • Health Implications: Its use in water-scarce regions could potentially lead to improved public health outcomes.

Cons:

  • Measured Output: The technology’s water production rate, especially in low sunlight areas, might be comparatively slower than some alternatives.
  • Sunlight Variability: Inconsistent sunlight patterns could challenge consistent water production, warranting supplementary approaches.
  • Financial Considerations: Implementing solar purification systems requires initial capital investment, which needs to be weighed against long-term advantages.

Looking ahead: Despite these considerations, solar water purification holds promise for Southeast Asia’s quest for clean water. As technology progresses, it’s anticipated that costs will decrease and efficiency will improve.

Membrane filtration

Membrane water filtration unit in a plant

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Filtration_unit_(crossflow_filtration).jpg

Introducing membrane filtration, a cutting-edge water treatment technique harnessing specialized membranes to eradicate contaminants from water sources. Membranes, delicately thin sheets endowed with specific-sized pores, allow the passage of water molecules while effectively barring larger impurities.

An array of membrane filtration methodologies exists, each with its distinct merits and drawbacks. Among the notable processes are:

  • Microfiltration: Employing membranes with roughly 0.1-micron pores, microfiltration adeptly eliminates bacteria, viruses, and diminutive particles from water.
  • Ultrafiltration: Operating with membranes featuring approximately 0.001-micron pores, ultrafiltration excels in extracting dissolved organic matter and other minute molecules.
  • Reverse Osmosis: Employing membranes with pores around 0.0001 microns in size, reverse osmosis emerges as the pinnacle of membrane filtration, effectively purging even the most infinitesimal contaminants from water.

Membrane filtration’s versatility extends to its capacity to eliminate a diverse array of contaminants from water. This sustainable and efficacious technique is gaining momentum across Southeast Asia.

Advantages inherent in membrane filtration encompass:

  • Comprehensive Contaminant Removal: It efficiently eliminates a broad spectrum of impurities from water, spanning bacteria, viruses, heavy metals, and organic pollutants.
  • Sustainability Champion: Doubling as an environmentally responsible approach, it eschews greenhouse gas emissions and finds utility in treating wastewater.
  • Economical Edge: While the initial investment might be substantial, the operational costs of membrane filtration systems remain comparatively modest.

However, challenges persist:

  • Energy Consumption: The operation of membrane filtration systems can be energy-intensive, necessitating significant power to operate the required equipment.
  • Scale-Up Complexities: Accommodating large populations through scaled-up membrane filtration systems poses spatial and financial constraints.
  • Membrane Costs: Regular replacement of membranes incurs notable expenses, adding to the financial considerations.

Exploring deeper nuances: Pros:

  • Versatile Contaminant Removal: Membrane filtration excels in ridding water of an extensive range of pollutants, including bacteria, viruses, heavy metals, and organic impurities.
  • Holistic Sustainability: Beyond purifying water, it contributes to sustainability by minimizing greenhouse gas emissions and repurposing wastewater.
  • Economic Efficiency: While installation costs can be substantial, the ongoing operational expenses of membrane filtration systems remain relatively budget-friendly.

Cons:

  • Energy Intensiveness: Operating membrane filtration systems entails substantial energy consumption, driven by the pumps and equipment employed.
  • Scale-Up Challenges: Adapting these systems to serve large populations presents logistical and financial complexities due to space and cost constraints.
  • Membrane Expense: Regular replacement of membranes incurs recurring costs that warrant consideration.

In summation, membrane filtration embodies a promising avenue for providing clean water across Southeast Asia. As the technology matures, anticipated reductions in costs and augmented efficiency are poised to make it more efficient.

To go further:

 

]]> https://asean-water.com/water-treatment-and-management-in-southeast-asia-the-latest-innovations/feed/ 0 2538 Drought Adaptation Techniques for Farmers in Southeast Asia https://asean-water.com/drought-adaptation-techniques-for-farmers-in-southeast-asia/ https://asean-water.com/drought-adaptation-techniques-for-farmers-in-southeast-asia/#respond Tue, 22 Aug 2023 08:32:08 +0000 https://asean-water.com/?p=2436

Heat waves and droughts are becoming more common in Southeast Asia due to climate change. These events can have a devastating impact on agriculture, which is a major source of food and income for the region. In order to adapt to these changing conditions, farmers need to adopt new practices that can help them to conserve water and protect their crops.

Some of the best techniques that farmers in Southeast Asia can use to face heat waves and droughts include:

  • Soil conservation practices: These practices help to retain water in the soil and reduce erosion, which can make crops more resilient to drought. Examples of soil conservation practices include no-till farming, cover cropping, and terracing.
  • Crop selection: Farmers should choose crops that are tolerant to heat and drought. Some examples of heat- and drought-tolerant crops include millet, sorghum, and soybeans.
  • Irrigation: Irrigation can help to supplement rainfall and ensure that crops have enough water to grow. There are many different irrigation methods available, such as drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation.

By adopting these and other drought adaptation practices, farmers in Southeast Asia can help to protect their crops and livelihoods from the effects of climate change.

Soil Conservation Practices for Drought-Prone Area in South-East Asia

Soil conservation is the practice of protecting and improving the soil by preventing erosion and degradation. This is important in drought-prone areas, as it can help to retain water in the soil and reduce the risk of crop failure.

There are many different soil conservation practices that can be used in Southeast Asia. Some of the most common include:

  • No-till farming: This is a farming practice that involves not disturbing the soil during planting and harvesting. This helps to protect the soil from erosion and retain water.
  • Cover cropping: This is the practice of planting a cover crop, such as legumes or grasses, between rows of crops. Cover crops help to protect the soil from erosion, improve soil fertility, and suppress weeds.
  • Terracing: This is the practice of building raised beds or platforms on sloping land. This helps to slow the flow of water and prevent erosion.

These are just a few of the many soil conservation practices that can be used in Southeast Asia. By adopting these practices, farmers can help to protect their soil and crops from the effects of drought.

Here are some additional benefits of soil conservation practices:

  • They can improve water quality by reducing sediment and nutrient runoff.
  • They can help to mitigate climate change by sequestering carbon in the soil.
  • They can create jobs and boost the economy by providing opportunities for farmers and other land managers to adopt these practices.

Crops Selection for Drought-Prone Areas in South-East Asia

Crop selection is an important decision for farmers in drought-prone areas. By choosing crops that are tolerant to heat and drought, farmers can reduce their risk of crop failure.

Some of the best crops for drought-prone areas in Southeast Asia include:

  • Millet: Millet is a drought-tolerant cereal grain that is high in protein and fiber. It is a good choice for dry areas because it can be grown in poor soils and with limited water.
Picture of Millet, a resistant plant for droughts

  • Sorghum: Sorghum is another drought-tolerant cereal grain that is high in protein and fiber. It is also a good source of carbohydrates and vitamins. Sorghum can be grown in a variety of soil types and can tolerate a wide range of temperatures.
sorghum plant in a field,resistant to droughts , good for climate change adaptation
  • Soybeans: Soybeans are a legume that is high in protein and oil. They are also a good source of vitamins and minerals. Soybeans can be grown in a variety of soil types and can tolerate a moderate amount of drought.
Close up of a soybean plant, which can be also used as a drought-resistant plant for the adaptation of climate change

  • Cassava: Cassava is a root crop that is high in carbohydrates. It is a good choice for drought-prone areas because it can be grown in poor soils and with limited water. Cassava can also be stored for long periods of time, which makes it a good crop for food security.
Cassava leaves, can help in drought period for farmers

  • Sweet potato: Sweet potato is a root crop that is high in carbohydrates and vitamin A. It is a good choice for drought-prone areas because it can be grown in poor soils and with limited water. Sweet potato can also be stored for long periods of time, which makes it a good crop for food security.
Sweet potato field, ideal for food security in dry area

These are just a few of the many crops that can be grown in drought-prone areas in Southeast Asia. By choosing crops that are tolerant to heat and drought, farmers can help to protect their crops and livelihoods from the effects of climate change.

Here are some additional tips for crop selection in drought-prone areas:

  • Consider the climate and rainfall patterns of the area.
  • Choose crops that are adapted to the specific conditions of the area.
  • Consider the soil type and fertility.
  • Choose crops that are resistant to pests and diseases.
  • Consider the market demand for the crops.

By following these tips, farmers can make informed decisions about crop selection and help to ensure a sustainable and profitable crop production.

Irrigation for Drought-Prone Areas in South-East Asia

Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to supplement rainfall and ensure that crops have enough water to grow.

Irrigation can be a valuable tool for farmers in drought-prone areas. However, it is important to use irrigation wisely, as it can also be a major source of water consumption.

There are many different irrigation methods available, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. Some of the most common irrigation methods in Southeast Asia include:

  • Drip irrigation: This method delivers water directly to the roots of the plants, which minimizes evaporation and water loss. This is particularly efficient in countries where water is precious.
  • Sprinkler irrigation: This method sprays water over the entire area to be irrigated. It is less efficient than drip irrigation as a large amount of the water evaporates, but it is also less expensive to install and maintain.
Irrigation sprinkles in a field

  • Surface irrigation: This method uses canals or ditches to distribute water over the land. It is the least efficient irrigation method, but it is also the least expensive to install and maintain.
Illustration of a surface irrigation water

The best irrigation method for a particular situation will depend on a number of factors, including the crop being grown, the climate, the soil type, and the availability of water.

Here are some additional tips for irrigation in drought-prone areas:

  • Use drip irrigation or other efficient irrigation methods.
  • Irrigate at the right time of day, when the water is less likely to evaporate.
  • Minimize water loss by repairing leaks and keeping irrigation systems clean.
  • Use water conservation practices, such as mulching and rainwater harvesting.

By following these tips, farmers can use irrigation to help their crops survive droughts and ensure a sustainable and profitable crop production.

Climate change is a major threat to agriculture in Southeast Asia. Heat waves and droughts are becoming more common, and these events can have a devastating impact on crops. However, there are a number of things that farmers can do to adapt to droughts and protect their crops.

Soil conservation practices, crop selection, and irrigation are all important drought adaptation techniques. By adopting these practices, farmers can help to ensure a sustainable and profitable crop production in the face of climate change.

In addition to these techniques, there are a number of other things that can be done to help farmers adapt to droughts in Southeast Asia. These include:

  • Investing in research and development of drought-tolerant crops and irrigation technologies.
  • Providing financial assistance to farmers to help them adopt these technologies.
  • Developing drought early warning systems to help farmers prepare for droughts.
  • Raising awareness of the importance of drought adaptation among farmers and policymakers.

By taking these steps, we can help to ensure that farmers in Southeast Asia are able to adapt to droughts and continue to produce food for the region.

To go further

  • FAO. (2020, March). The impact of climate change on agriculture in southern countries. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/3/cb1447en/cb1447en.pdf
  • IWMI. (2019, June). Drought adaptation in agriculture: A review of practices and technologies. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute. https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/publications/iwmi-research-reports/
  • USDA. (2018, October). Soil conservation practices for drought-prone areas. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture.
 
All illustration pictures are free of right.
]]> https://asean-water.com/drought-adaptation-techniques-for-farmers-in-southeast-asia/feed/ 0 2436 Water scarcity in the Philippines https://asean-water.com/water-scarcity-in-the-philippines/ https://asean-water.com/water-scarcity-in-the-philippines/#respond Mon, 21 Aug 2023 08:22:35 +0000 https://asean-water.com/?p=2242

Impacts of global changes in the water resources of the Philippines

Water scarcity is a growing problem in Southeast Asia, and the Philippines is one of the most vulnerable countries in the region. The country is already experiencing the effects of climate change, such as more frequent and intense droughts, which are making it more difficult to access safe and clean water.

A study by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) found that the Philippines could face a water deficit of up to 16 billion cubic meters by 2040. This deficit could have a devastating impact on the country’s economy and food security. The ADB study is not the only one to predict a water deficit in the Philippines. A study by the World Bank found that the Philippines could face a water deficit of up to 10 billion cubic meters by 2030. Another study by the United Nations Environment Programme found that the Philippines could face a water deficit of up to 12 billion cubic meters by 2050.

There are a number of factors that are contributing to water scarcity in the Philippines. These include:

  • Climate change: As the climate changes, the Philippines is experiencing more frequent and intense droughts. This is reducing the amount of water available for agriculture, drinking, and other uses.
  • Population growth: The Philippines is one of the fastest-growing countries in Southeast Asia. This is putting a strain on the country’s water resources.
  • Pollution: Water pollution is also a major problem in the Philippines. This is making it difficult to access safe and clean water, inlcluding eutrophication of water bodies.
  • Inefficient water use: The Philippines is also inefficient in its use of water. This means that more water is being used than is necessary.
 
  • What is a water deficit?

A water deficit is the difference between the amount of water available and the amount of water needed. In the Philippines, the water deficit is expected to grow as the climate changes and the population grows.

For example, the Philippines’ annual water demand is estimated to be 160 billion cubic meters, while the country’s annual water supply is only 144 billion cubic meters. This means that the Philippines is already facing a water deficit of 16 billion cubic meters.

 

  • How is climate change affecting the water crisis in the Philippines?

Climate change is causing the Philippines to experience more frequent and intense droughts. This is reducing the amount of water available for agriculture, drinking, and other uses.

For example, the drought in 2015-2016 caused water shortages in many parts of the country, including Metro Manila. The drought affected over 2.5 million people and caused an estimated $1 billion in damage.

These climatic effects can also be amplified by meteorological effects, such as El Nino.

 

  • How is population growth affecting the water crisis in the Philippines?

The Philippines is one of the fastest-growing countries in Southeast Asia. This is putting a strain on the country’s water resources. The more people there are, the more water is needed for drinking, sanitation, and agriculture.

For example, the Philippines’ population is expected to reach 110 million by 2050. This means that the country’s water demand is also expected to increase by 50%.

 

  • How is pollution affecting the water crisis in the Philippines?

Water pollution is also a major problem in the Philippines. This is making it difficult to access safe and clean water. Pollution can come from factories, farms, and sewage treatment plants.

For example, a study by the World Health Organization found that over 70% of the water in the Philippines is polluted. This pollution is a major health risk, as it can cause waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhoid.

 

  • How is inefficient water use affecting the water crisis in the Philippines?

The Philippines is also inefficient in its use of water. This means that more water is being used than is necessary. For example, the Philippines loses about 30% of its water due to leaks in water pipes.

This inefficiency is also a major factor in the water crisis. If the Philippines could reduce its water losses, it would have more water available to meet the needs of its growing population.

 

  • What are the consequences of the water crisis in the Philippines?

The water crisis in the Philippines is a major threat to the country’s economy and food security. Agriculture is a major economic driver in the Philippines, and it is heavily reliant on water. A water deficit could lead to crop failures, which would have a devastating impact on the country’s food supply.

For example, a study by the International Food Policy Research Institute found that a water deficit in the Philippines could lead to a loss of up to 10% of the country’s agricultural output.

The water crisis is also a major threat to public health. Water scarcity can lead to waterborne diseases, such as cholera and typhoid. It can also lead to conflicts over water resources.

 

  • What can be done to address the water crisis in the Philippines?

The Philippines needs to take action now to address the water crisis. This includes investing in water infrastructure, improving water efficiency, and reducing water pollution. The country also needs to educate the public about the importance of water conservation.

For example, the Philippines government has invested in a number of water projects, such as dams and reservoirs. These projects are helping to store water during wet periods and release it during dry periods.

The government is also working to improve water efficiency. This includes promoting the use of drip irrigation in agriculture and fixing leaks in water pipes.

The government is also working to reduce water pollution. This includes enforcing regulations on factories and farms and investing in sewage treatment plants.

 

  • What can you do to help address the water crisis in the Philippines?

There are a number of things that you can do to help address the water crisis in the Philippines. These include:

  • Conserve water at home and at work. This can be done by taking shorter showers, fixing leaks in faucets, and watering your lawn less often.
  • Fix leaks in water pipes. This can be done by calling a plumber or doing it yourself.
  • Recycle and reuse water. This can be done by collecting rainwater or using graywater for watering plants.
  • Support policies that promote water conservation and efficiency. This can be done by contacting your elected officials and letting them know that you support water conservation.
 
 

To go further :

 

  • “Philippines Facing Water Crisis, Study Warns” by the World Bank. This article discusses the water crisis in the Philippines and the need for action to address it.
  • “Water Crisis in the Philippines: Causes, Consequences, and Solutions” by the Asian Development Bank. This report provides an overview of the water crisis in the Philippines and the challenges that the country faces in addressing it.
  • “Water Security in a Changing Climate: Southeast Asia” by the United Nations Environment Programme. This report discusses the water security challenges facing Southeast Asia, including the Philippines, and the region’s efforts to address these challenges.
  • “Impacts of Climate Change on Water Resources in the Philippines” by the World Bank. This report discusses the impacts of climate change on water resources in the Philippines and the country’s vulnerability to water scarcity.
  • “Water Pollution in the Philippines” by the World Health Organization. This report discusses the water pollution in the Philippines and the health risks associated with it.
  • “Impacts of super typhoons and climate change” by PreventionWeb. This article states that “weather-related disasters increased by a factor of five in the last 50 years, driven by climate change.” The article also notes that “studies show that intense cyclones, storms, and typhoons are increasing due to the warming climate and will continue for the foreseeable future.” https://www.preventionweb.net/news/impacts-super-typhoons-and-climate-change
  • “Response of damaging Philippines tropical cyclones to a warming climate using the pseudo global warming approach” by SpringerLink. This study found that the average intensity of typhoons in the western North Pacific (which includes the Philippines) has increased by about 10% since the 1970s. The study also found that this increase in intensity is projected to continue in the future. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00382-023-06742-6
  • “For the Philippines, a warming world means stronger typhoons, fewer fish” by Mongabay. This article discusses the impacts of climate change on the Philippines, including the increasing intensity of typhoons. The article quotes a scientist from the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) who says that “the frequency of typhoons may not change, but the intensity will.” https://news.mongabay.com/2019/10/for-the-philippines-a-warming-world-means-stronger-typhoons-fewer-fish/: https://news.mongabay.com/2019/10/for-the-philippines-a-warming-world-means-stronger-typhoons-fewer-fish/
  • “PHILIPPINES – Climate Change Knowledge Portal” by the World Bank. This report from the World Bank discusses the impacts of climate change on the Philippines, including the increasing intensity of typhoons. The report states that “the Philippines is especially exposed to tropical cyclones, flooding, and landslides.” https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/2021-08/15852-WB_Philippines%20Country%20Profile-WEB.pdf
]]> https://asean-water.com/water-scarcity-in-the-philippines/feed/ 0 2242 El Niño https://asean-water.com/el-nino/ https://asean-water.com/el-nino/#respond Wed, 10 May 2023 23:58:57 +0000 https://asean-water.com/?p=1985

1.     What is El Nino phenomenon?

El nino vs la nina

El Niño is a weather phenomenon that occurs when there is a warming of the surface water in the Pacific Ocean, specifically in the region around the equator. This warming can disrupt normal weather patterns and cause changes in rainfall and temperature across the globe. El Niño typically occurs every few years, and can last for several months to a year or more.

The consequences of El Niño can be significant, and can vary depending on the location and severity of the phenomenon. One of the most significant impacts of El Niño is on agriculture. In some parts of the world, El Niño can lead to drought conditions, which can cause crop failures and lower yields. This can have a devastating impact on farmers, who may lose their source of income and struggle to provide for their families. In addition, the impact on agriculture can have wider economic consequences, as the agricultural sector is an important contributor to many countries’ economies.

El Niño can also have an impact on global weather patterns, leading to changes in temperature, rainfall, and even the occurrence of extreme weather events such as hurricanes and floods. In some parts of the world, El Niño can lead to more frequent and severe storms, which can cause significant damage to infrastructure and homes. The impact of El Niño on weather patterns can also have an impact on the environment, leading to changes in ocean currents, sea level, and the distribution of plant and animal species.

In addition to its impact on agriculture and the environment, El Niño can also have consequences for human health. In some areas, El Niño can lead to the spread of water-borne diseases, as drought conditions can make it more difficult to access clean water. In addition, the occurrence of extreme weather events can put people at risk of injury or illness.

Overall, El Niño is a natural phenomenon that can have significant and far-reaching consequences for the world. By understanding the causes and effects of El Niño, we can work towards building more resilient and sustainable communities that are better able to withstand the impact of this and other natural phenomena.

2.     El Nino’s effect in Philippines

The Philippines is no stranger to natural disasters, but one phenomenon in particular has brought devastation to the country time and time again – El Niño. This weather phenomenon, caused by a warming of the Pacific Ocean, can have disastrous consequences for the Philippines, including droughts, crop failures, typhoons and even food shortages. In this article, we will explore the far-reaching consequences of El Niño in the Philippines, from its impact on agriculture and the economy to its effects on people’s daily lives and try to anticipate its impacts for the end of 2023.

El Niño is a weather phenomenon that has plagued the Philippines for decades. It occurs when the surface temperature of the Pacific Ocean rises above average, causing changes in wind patterns and atmospheric circulation. This disruption in weather patterns can have serious consequences for the Philippines, which relies heavily on agriculture as a key source of income and food security. During El Niño years, the country is often hit with prolonged droughts, which can lead to crop failures and lower yields. In turn, this can result in higher food prices, putting a strain on the economy and making it difficult for many Filipinos to access basic necessities. This was particularly observed during the 1997/98 El Nino, where agricultural communities in the Philippines suffered widespread crop losses (Dawe et al., 2009 & Lopez and Mendoza 2004). Around 60% of rice production in the Philippines comes from the island of Luzon, with two main periods for rice harvesting (the principal from October to November and the second one, smaller, from March to April). The irrigation system development since the 1970’s years made possible to triple the rice production in this island during the dry season and now accounts for around 43% of the annual rice production (Roberts et al., 2009). Some farmers in irrigated systems are not adequately protected against drought due to limited storage capacity. Even when there is sufficient storage capacity in irrigation systems, the demand for water from urban and industrial sectors during drought periods can result in reduced water availability for agricultural purposes (Dawe et al. 2009). However, rainfed rice systems remain a very important resource for many poorer famers in the Philippines, and is again more susceptible to drought stress. Unlike previous studies, Roberts and al., 2009 found that both irrigated and rainfed rice systems were affected by El Nino phenomenon, although they are affected differently. The decline of production for the irrigated system found out to be mainly due to the decrease in area harvested and in dry season is associated with a decrease of 3.7% of the production, while the rainfed system suffered mainly from the droughts associated with the El Nino phenomenon and is associated with a 13.7% production decrease during the dry-season. Knowing this, with appropriate management of imports, stock and insurances for rainfed dependent farmers, it is possible to lower the El Nino effects in rice crop production impact on the populations, and especially the poorest populations, who proportionally spend the most of their income for rice.

The impacts of El Nino in the sea industries are multiple. This phenomenon can affect multiple parameters involved in the ocean such as surface temperature, salinity, nutrient availability, ocean current, tropical typhoons… This changes in the oceans could have important short-term or lasting effects such as the increase of phytoplankton biomass, widespread of coral bleaching and resulting to seaweed diseases, threat to marine mammal animals and fish kills (Damatac and Santos, 2016). This poses a great pressure to the livelihood and food security among the Filipinos, and especially the coastal communities where fish farms or fishing is the primary source of food and income for a large number of persons.

The impact of El Niño on agriculture is not just limited to individual farmers – it can also have far-reaching effects on the wider economy. Agriculture is a major contributor to the Philippines’ GDP, accounting for around 9% of the country’s total economic output. When crops fail and yields are lower, this can lead to a decrease in agricultural output, which in turn can have a negative impact on the economy as a whole. This can lead to higher food prices, which can make it more difficult for people to afford basic necessities. In addition, the impact on the agricultural sector can have a ripple effect on other industries, such as manufacturing and transportation, leading to further economic strain.

The effects of El Niño on the Philippines are not just limited to agriculture and the economy they can also have a profound impact on people’s daily lives. During El Niño years, many Filipinos may experience water shortages, as the lack of rainfall leads to depleted water sources. This can make it difficult to access clean water for drinking, cooking, and sanitation, and can lead to the spread of water-borne diseases. In addition, the drought can lead to forest fires, which can cause air pollution and respiratory problems for people living nearby.

The impact of El Niño on the Philippines is not limited to the immediate effects of drought and crop failure. The long-term consequences of the phenomenon can also be significant, particularly in terms of environmental degradation. Drought and deforestation can lead to soil erosion and reduced soil fertility, making it more difficult to grow crops in the future. In addition, the burning of forests and other vegetation during El Niño years can release large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change. As such, the consequences of El Niño in the Philippines can be felt long after the phenomenon has passed, affecting not just the current generation, but also future ones.

In conclusion, El Niño is a powerful weather phenomenon that has had far-reaching consequences for the Philippines. From its impact on agriculture and the economy to its effects on people’s daily lives and the environment, the consequences of El Niño can be devastating. Despite this, the country has shown remarkable resilience in the face of such challenges, with government agencies and non-governmental organizations working to mitigate the effects of El Niño on vulnerable communities. By understanding the causes and consequences of El Niño, we can better prepare for its impacts and work towards building more resilient and sustainable communities.

To go Further

Hilario, F. et al. (2009) ‘El Nino Southern Oscillation in the Philippines: Impacts, Forecasts, and Risk Management’, Philippines Journal of Development [Preprint], (66).
 
Roberts, M.G. et al. (2009) ‘El Niño–Southern Oscillation Impacts on Rice Production in Luzon, the Philippines’, Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, 48(8), pp. 1718–1724. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JAMC1628.1.
 
Damatac II, A.M. and Santos, M.D. (2016) ‘Possible Effect of El Nino on Some Philippines Marine Fisheries Resources’, Philippine Journal of Science, 145(3), pp. 283–295.

 

 

]]> https://asean-water.com/el-nino/feed/ 0 1985 Challenges of Climate change in SE Asia https://asean-water.com/challenges-of-climate-change-in-se-asia/ https://asean-water.com/challenges-of-climate-change-in-se-asia/#respond Fri, 31 Mar 2023 03:15:45 +0000 https://asean-water.com/?p=1802

Climate change is one of the biggest challenges facing the world today, and Southeast Asia is no exception. The region is home to over 650 million people and some of the world’s most biodiverse ecosystems. However, climate change is putting these ecosystems and the people who depend on them at risk. This essay will explore the challenges and opportunities presented by climate change in Southeast Asia.

Challenges of Climate Change in South-East Asia

Southeast Asia is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The region is already experiencing more frequent and intense weather events, such as droughts, floods, and tropical storms. These events can have devastating impacts on the region’s agriculture, infrastructure, and communities.

One of the most significant impacts of climate change in Southeast Asia is on food security. Agriculture is a crucial sector for the region’s economies, providing livelihoods for millions of people. However, changes in temperature and rainfall patterns can lead to crop failures, reduced yields, and lower quality crops. In turn, this can lead to food shortages, higher food prices, and malnutrition.

Climate change is also affecting Southeast Asia’s water resources. The region is home to many major rivers, including the Mekong, Irrawaddy, and Chao Phraya, which provide water for millions of people. However, changing rainfall patterns can lead to water shortages, affecting not only agriculture but also domestic and industrial use. Additionally, sea-level rise is causing saltwater intrusion in coastal areas, which can contaminate freshwater sources and exacerbate water scarcity.

The impacts of climate change are not just environmental but also social and economic. Vulnerable communities in Southeast Asia, such as indigenous groups and those living in poverty, are disproportionately affected by climate change. They may lack access to resources to adapt to changing conditions and may be forced to migrate or take on debt to cope with the impacts of climate change.

Opportunities of Climate Change in Southeast Asia

Despite the challenges, there are also opportunities presented by climate change in Southeast Asia. One opportunity is the potential for renewable energy development. Southeast Asia has abundant sources of renewable energy, including solar, wind, and hydropower. Developing these sources could reduce the region’s reliance on fossil fuels, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and create new job opportunities.

Another opportunity is the potential for nature-based solutions to climate change. Southeast Asia is home to some of the world’s most biodiverse ecosystems, including rainforests, coral reefs, and mangroves. These ecosystems can provide a range of services, including carbon storage, erosion control, and water filtration. Protecting and restoring these ecosystems can not only help mitigate the impacts of climate change but also provide economic benefits such as ecotourism and sustainable agriculture.

Finally, climate change presents an opportunity for regional cooperation. Many of the challenges posed by climate change in Southeast Asia are transboundary, requiring coordinated action between countries. For example, the Mekong River, which flows through six countries in the region, is already experiencing the impacts of climate change. Cooperation between these countries is essential to manage water resources sustainably and adapt to changing conditions.

Climate change in the Philippines

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released its latest report in August 2021, which provides an updated understanding of the impact of climate change globally, and more especially in the Philippines. The report highlights the following effects of climate change on the Philippines:

 

  • Increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events: The Philippines is already experiencing more frequent and intense weather events, including typhoons, floods, and droughts. Climate change is expected to exacerbate these events, leading to increased damage to infrastructure and agriculture, displacement of communities, and loss of life.

Over the past two decades, there have been some changes in the frequency of typhoons in the Philippines. According to data from the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA), there has been an increase in the number of typhoons entering the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR) over the past 20 years. The PAR is the region in which PAGASA is responsible for issuing weather advisories, and it covers an area that includes the Philippines and parts of the western Pacific.

Specifically, PAGASA data shows that from 2001 to 2020, an average of 19 tropical cyclones entered the PAR each year, which is higher than the annual average of 15 tropical cyclones recorded from 1961 to 2000. However, it is important to note that the number of typhoons that actually make landfall in the Philippines can vary from year to year, depending on factors such as wind patterns and sea surface temperatures.

In addition to the increase in the number of typhoons entering the PAR, there has also been some evidence to suggest that typhoons in the region may be becoming more intense. A study published in the journal Nature Communications in 2020 found that there has been an increase in the frequency of very strong typhoons in the western North Pacific, which includes the Philippines. The study suggests that this increase may be due to changes in sea surface temperatures and atmospheric circulation patterns, which are consistent with the effects of global warming.

Overall, while the frequency of typhoons making landfall in the Philippines has not increased significantly over the past two decades, there has been an increase in the number of typhoons entering the PAR, and some evidence suggests that typhoons in the region may be becoming more intense. These changes have significant implications for the Philippines, including the potential for more frequent and severe flooding, landslides, and damage to infrastructure and agriculture.

 

  • Sea-level rise and coastal flooding: The Philippines is a low-lying country with a long coastline, making it particularly vulnerable to sea-level rise. The report predicts that global sea levels could rise by up to 2 meters by the end of the century, which would have significant implications for the Philippines, including coastal flooding, saltwater intrusion into freshwater sources, and displacement of communities.

This IPCC report suggests that global sea levels have risen by around 0.2 meters since the late 19th century, and are projected to continue to rise in the future. The report also highlights that sea level rise is likely to be greater in the western Pacific region, which includes the Philippines, than the global average.

Several recent studies have focused specifically on sea level rise in the Philippines. One study published in the journal Nature Communications in 2018 used satellite data to estimate that sea levels around the Philippines have risen by around 3.3 millimeters per year since 1993. The study suggests that this rate of sea level rise is faster than the global average, and is likely to continue in the future.

Another study published in the journal Regional Environmental Change in 2020 looked at the vulnerability of coastal communities in the Philippines to sea level rise. The study found that around 1,200 coastal communities in the Philippines are at high risk of flooding due to sea level rise, particularly in areas such as the Visayas and Mindanao regions.

The impacts of sea level rise on the Philippines are significant and wide-ranging. Rising sea levels can lead to more frequent and severe coastal flooding, erosion of coastlines, loss of coastal habitats, and saltwater intrusion into freshwater resources. These impacts can have significant economic, social, and environmental consequences, particularly for vulnerable coastal communities.

In summary, scientific publications suggest that sea levels are rising in the Philippines, and that this trend is likely to continue in the future. Sea level rise is expected to have significant impacts on the country, particularly on its coastal areas and communities. It is therefore crucial for the Philippines to take action to mitigate and adapt to the impacts of sea level rise, through measures such as coastal protection, sustainable land use planning, and disaster risk reduction strategies.

 

  • Negative impact on agriculture: Agriculture is a crucial sector for the Philippines, providing livelihoods for millions of people. Climate change is expected to reduce agricultural productivity in the country, particularly for rice, a staple crop. The report suggests that without significant adaptation measures, crop yields could decline by up to 75% in some regions of the country. It is essential to adapt agricultural practices to sustain food security in the region.

Decreased crop yields: Climate change is expected to lead to more frequent and severe weather events, such as droughts and floods, which can damage crops and reduce yields. A study published in the journal Climatic Change in 2015 found that rice yields in the Philippines could decline by 10-20% by the 2050s due to climate change.

Increased pest and disease pressure: Climate change can also increase the prevalence and severity of pests and diseases, which can damage crops and reduce yields. A study published in the journal PLOS ONE in 2019 found that climate change is likely to increase the incidence of rice diseases in the Philippines, which could lead to significant crop losses.

Soil degradation: Climate change can also lead to soil degradation, as increased temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns can affect soil moisture and nutrient availability. A study published in the journal Agricultural Systems in 2020 found that climate change is likely to increase soil erosion in the Philippines, which could have implications for soil fertility and agricultural productivity.

 

  • Health impacts: Climate change is expected to increase the incidence of vector-borne diseases, such as dengue fever and malaria, in the Philippines. Extreme heat events could also lead to an increase in heat-related illnesses, particularly among vulnerable populations.
 
  • Water scarcity: The Philippines is already experiencing water scarcity in some regions of the country, and climate change is expected to exacerbate this issue. Changes in rainfall patterns and higher temperatures could lead to more frequent and severe droughts, reducing the availability of water for domestic, agricultural, and industrial use.

A study published in the journal Water Resources Management in 2020 analyzed the impacts of climate change on water availability in the Philippines. The study found that under a high-emissions scenario, water availability in the country is likely to decrease by up to 40% by the end of the century, due to changes in precipitation and evapotranspiration. Another study published in the same journal in 2021 looked at the impacts of climate change on groundwater resources in the Philippines. The study found that groundwater recharge rates are likely to decrease due to changes in precipitation patterns and increased evapotranspiration, which could lead to reduced groundwater availability in some areas.

A study published in the journal Sustainability in 2020 looked at the impacts of climate change on the water supply of Metro Manila, which is home to over 12 million people. The study found that climate change is likely to lead to more frequent and severe droughts in the region, which could result in water shortages and increased competition for water resources. The Philippine Climate Change Assessment Report 2018, which was produced by the Climate Change Commission of the Philippines, highlights the impacts of climate change on water resources in the country. The report notes that climate change is expected to lead to more variable and unpredictable precipitation patterns, which could affect the reliability and availability of water resources.

 

  • Biodiversity loss: The Philippines is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world, but climate change is expected to have a significant impact on its ecosystems. The report suggests that the country’s coral reefs, mangroves, and seagrasses could be severely affected by rising temperatures, leading to a decline in biodiversity and loss of ecosystem services.
 
 

In summary, the latest IPCC  and most of the latest scientific community report highlights the significant impact of climate change on the Philippines, with increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, sea-level rise, negative impacts on agriculture, health impacts, water scarcity, and biodiversity loss. However, the report also emphasizes that there are opportunities to mitigate and adapt to the impacts of climate change, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions, developing renewable energy sources, and implementing nature-based solutions.

To go Further

IPCC

AR5 Synthesis Report: Climate Change 2014: https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/

AR6 Synthesis Report: Climate Change 2023: https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-cycle/

]]> https://asean-water.com/challenges-of-climate-change-in-se-asia/feed/ 0 1802 Eutrophication will increase during the 21st century https://asean-water.com/eutrophication-will-increase-during-the-21st-century/ https://asean-water.com/eutrophication-will-increase-during-the-21st-century/#respond Sun, 06 Mar 2022 07:27:39 +0000 https://asean-water.com/?p=163 Sinha, E., Michalak, A.M. and Balaji, V. (2017) ‘Eutrophication will increase during the 21st century as a result of precipitation changes’, Science, 357(6349), pp. 405–408. doi:10.1126/science.aan2409.

Eutrophication, or excessive nutrient enrichment, happens when water bodies are entirely or progressively enriched in nutrients, especially in Nitrogen (NO³¯ and NH4+ mainly) and Phosphorus (PO4³¯). This excessive increase of nutrients leads generally to harmful algal or phytoplankton blooms or hypoxia (Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008; Michael Beman et al., 2005; Paerl et al., 1990), and can have important effects on the aquatic wildlife or in changes in RedOx, mobility, and toxicity of metals (Zn, Pb, Cr, Cu…) and metalloids (As…) (Liu et al., 2019) as well as illness widespread (Prepas and Charette, 2003).

Eutrophication decreases aquatic system biodiversity. The main sources of nitrogen or phosphorus in water bodies are agriculture (fertilizers), population growth and untreated wastewaters, deforestation (increase of soil and nutrient weathering) (Prepas and Charette, 2003)… As a comparison title, drainage basins with intensive agriculture can export five or more times the phosphorus and nitrogen of forested drainage basins (Dillon and Kirchner, 1975). These 50 last years, the use of fertilizers and especially of nitrogen has been multiplied by nearly 10 (Figure 1), and its utilization increased higher than meat and crops production (McLaughlin and Kinzelbach, 2015).

Figure 1: Trends in global population, meat and cereal production, water, nutrients, and land use. From McLaughin et Kinzelbach, (2015).

A recent study (Sinha et al., 2017) found that “anticipated changes in future precipitation patterns alone will lead to large and robust increases in watershed-scale nitrogen fluxes by the end of the century for the as-usual scenario” (scenarios where no drastic changes are made in our way to consume fossils energies and release CO2 in the atmosphere).

Climate change is expected to change patterns of rain frequencies, but also of intensity, showing on average fewer rains but with higher intensity, favoring flooding, runoff and nutrient transportation to water bodies. Most impacted areas for an important increase in total nitrogen flux are shown in Figure 2, and mainly concerns the eastern part of the United States of America, a small portion of central Europe, and most Southern and Southern-East Asian countries (especially India, Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines, Chine, Japan, and Korea. These changes are considered as robust and in good agreement between different models chosen, and show Nitrogen fluxes between 20 to 245 kg N ha-1 year-4.

However, current climate models have shown to underestimate internal climate variability (Laepple and Huybers, 2014), which could lead to an under-estimation of the Nitrogen fluxes changes in inner lands. However, regions most likely to be impacted by changes in nitrogen fluxes are the ones presenting important changes in precipitation patterns and having wide agricultural intensive areas.

Figure 2: Global regions most likely to experience large increases in total nitrogen fluxes. Hatched regions do not meet criteria in changes of precipitation nor nitrogen input to present a large increase of nitrogen fluxes. From Sinha et al., (2015).

In conclusion, the authors conclude that strategies aimed at managing eutrophication and associated water quality problems must account for the impact of changing precipitation patterns on nutrients loading. New strategies will have to be made to take into account the effect of water quality due to climate change and protect water bodies from massive eutrophication, especially in East and South-East Asia. Not taking them into the account could have an effect to negate the strategies aimed at nitrogen load reduction or exacerbating water quality impairment, as well as decreasing water quality and availability for irrigation or for the populations living around affected areas (more than a billion people in Asia).

 

References

Diaz, R.J., Rosenberg, R., 2008. Spreading Dead Zones and Consequences for Marine Ecosystems. Science 321, 926–929. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1156401

Dillon, P.J., Kirchner, W.B., 1975. The effects of geology and land use on the export of phosphorus from watersheds. Water Research 9, 135–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(75)90002-0

Laepple, T., Huybers, P., 2014. Ocean surface temperature variability: Large model-data differences at decadal and longer periods. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111, 16682–16687. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1412077111

Liu, J.-J., Diao, Z.-H., Xu, X.-R., Xie, Q., 2019. Effects of dissolved oxygen, salinity, nitrogen, and phosphorus on the release of heavy metals from coastal sediments. Science of The Total Environment 666, 894–901. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.288

McLaughlin, D., Kinzelbach, W., 2015. Food security and sustainable resource management. Water Resources Research 51, 4966–4985. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015WR017053

Michael Beman, J., Arrigo, K.R., Matson, P.A., 2005. Agricultural runoff fuels large phytoplankton blooms in vulnerable areas of the ocean. Nature 434, 211–214. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03370

Paerl, H.W., Rudek, J., Mallin, M.A., 1990. Stimulation of phytoplankton production in coastal waters by natural rainfall inputs: Nutritional and trophic implications. Mar. Biol. 107, 247–254. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01319823

Prepas, E.E., Charette, T., 2003. Worldwide Eutrophication of Water Bodies: Causes, Concerns, Controls. Treatise on Geochemistry 9, 612. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/09169-6

Sinha, E., Michalak, A.M., Balaji, V., 2017. Eutrophication will increase during the 21st century as a result of precipitation changes. Science 357, 405–408. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan2409

]]> https://asean-water.com/eutrophication-will-increase-during-the-21st-century/feed/ 0 163 How to read scientific citations and verify the sources – A short guide https://asean-water.com/how-to-read-scientific-citations/ https://asean-water.com/how-to-read-scientific-citations/#respond Sun, 06 Mar 2022 07:26:24 +0000 https://asean-water.com/?p=158 What do citations look like?

All articles written on this website will follow the scientific notation for sources and citations, and especially the “Elsevier (with titles)” of the Harvard notation system. All citations in the text will be under the form:

Figure 1:Form of the citations in the text.

The form of the citations in scientific literature is always of the form as shown in Figure 1. The name of the first author is always written (here squared in red), followed by “et al.,” (squared in green) which means “and others” in Latin, to mean that not only the first author worked on this work. The date is also always mentioned and is important to check whether or not the study is recent.

But this information is not always enough to find the source and the original article. It is then important to check in the chapter “References” to find the complete source. An example corresponding to the complete source of Figure 1 is shown in Figure 2:

Figure 2: Form of the citations in the reference section.

This time, the complete name of the team who made the research is written (squared in red). The first author is generally the most important contributor, and the other names are written in the order of contribution. The last name, in Geochemistry and Earth sciences more generally, is the director of the team or the person who supervised and obtained the funds. In blue, squared, the date is also reported here. Then comes the complete title of the study, the name of the journal where it was published (squared in green, here Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry), the number of the publication (here 36, without square), and finally the page numbers (in orange). Usually, a DOI (Digital Object Identifier) can also be provided. This is a unique identifier attributed to every scientific publication which permits to locate the document easily. It is under the form of a permanent web address (URL), here written and underlined in blue, as is the case for links.

How to access these citations?

Usually typing the DOI on the URL research of the web browser will give immediate access to the presentation page of the article, where the abstract and references will be displayed.

If the DOI is not given in the references, various search engines allow you to search specifically in scientific publications. Among them, the most used is probably google scholar. Typing the entire reference will bring up the desired study.

Unfortunately, most of the publications in scientific journals have to be paid to have access. The open-access journals are in the minority for the moment. However, the abstracts (short summaries of the study) and some other information are often free to access and can give an overview of the main results.

Fortunately, there are some alternatives to get these articles for those who cannot pay to read them. Although tolerated in most countries, these alternative sites are often the target of a trial from the main journal editors. Thus, these accesses can be limited via network providers, but it is important to note that the access to these websites and this scientific research in no way penalizes the researchers, who very often campaign for the sharing of knowledge with the most persons.

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